Education Guidebook A:
Instructed Learning
This education guidebook is one of three included with the #4 Guide to Academic Resources for College Students Who Have IH. The Education Guidebooks introduce students to different ways of learning based on how courses are taught: instructed learning, experiential learning; and online learning. Students who have IH can use these resources to determine “good fits” between their options for learning and IH symptoms.
- Education Guidebook A: Instructed Learning is discussed in terms of methods of instruction; potential issues for students who have IH are identified.
- Education Guidebook B: Experiential Learning* and its varied practices are described, and potential concerns for students who have IH are noted. *learning by discovering knowledge when actively working on a project, problem, or issue and critically reflecting about it.
- Education Guidebook C: Online Learning is discussed in terms of five (5) critical considerations, and issues are flagged where caution is advised.
This guidebook, which provides students general information about the instruction methods used to engage students in their learning, whether for in-person classes or campus education centers, is intended to be used as a reference guide. To benefit most from this reference guide, students are encouraged to work with others, e.g., their accessibility specialists, supporters, friends, roommates, to identify the instruction method(s) used by the instructor and described in the course syllabus. Students can then use the links in the INDEX at the end of this guide to learn more about those methods and consider whether they are good matches for their needs and learning preferences.
There are three (3) built-in resources in this guidebook:
Student TIPS!
Student tips flag potential issues for IH symptoms (e.g., attendance, attentiveness, engagement) and provide information related to the topic being discussed. Students who have IH are advised to read the Student TIPS! entries in this guidebook before enrolling in courses.
A GLOSSARY of Instruction Methods
The glossary provides the structure to most of the Education Guidebook. Entries are listed alphabetically, and their references are embedded throughout the GLOSSARY. The entries are intended to be to read when relevant to the course, so some information may be repeated across entries.
A PEEK Behind the Instructor’s Door
These provide information about what goes on “behind the scenes” that may help students who have IH make sense of what they experience in a course.
Before You Dive Into This Reference Guide …
Recently, there has been a greater focus on making sure that students actually learn in their classes – not just pass exams. As a result, instruction methods are used that foster “deep” learning in the course, which is learning that lasts over time and can be recalled and applied in future times. Surface learning, on the other hand, is something that is understood at the time but can’t be recalled later. These three questions, which relate to changes in ways courses are taught on campus, are discussed over the next few pages.
- What do we know about learning?
- What do we know about student engagement?
- What do we know about technology and instruction methods?
If you want to know more about how we learn and why learning can be particularly challenging for students who have IH, then continue reading. Otherwise, skip over the section below and go directly to the INDEX of Instruction Methods and the GLOSSARY of the descriptions of those methods at the end of this guidebook. The course syllabus contains descriptions of the methods used by the instructor (see the sections Course Description and Instruction Methods for a solid understanding). Once done, you will be more informed to decide which methods are good matches with your symptoms and preferred ways of learning.
Student TIPS!
Although students who have IH may seek courses that are instructed in ways that are “best fits” with their needs, it is not always possible to find that level of fit. Instead, consider using the “good fit” approach which will provide more options for courses.
If there are concerns about the fit, students may want to talk with their accessibility specialists about the expectations of the course so students can judge how much of a good fit it is. If it is not a good fit, students can discuss their challenges with the accessibility specialists and then with the instructor to identify ways to meet the course requirements. By working with the accessibility specialist and the instructor and using the learning tools available, student success will improve!
It is very important that those discussions take place during the academic term before students enroll in courses so that the students are adequately prepared for the course registration period.
What Do We Know About Learning?
We know that at some point, a high school student becomes a young adult learner and joins the ranks of college students of all ages. The first year on campus may be your transition year for that to happen. What we know about the ways college students/young adults learn can be useful to understanding the instruction methods you might prefer as a student who has IH (Bransford, et al; 1999; Ewell, 1997; Knowles, 1984).
The motivations of a young adult student affect the student’s expectations of and the decisions they make about a course. For example, we know that (Knowles, 1984):
- The reason why students want to learn is based on their need-to-know of the content;
- Students’ life or work experiences become a resource to them and the basis of their learning;
- Students want to make their own decisions and be involved in the planning, discovery process, and evaluation of their learning, with guidance as needed from the instructor;
- Students want to learn what has immediate relevance to their personal/work lives, and that relevance attracts interest and motivates behavior (Cavanaugh, 2019);
- Students prefer to work on problems and issues rather than study subject content.
What is it that happens when a student is involved in learning?
We know that:
- Students create their own learning, actively and uniquely;
- Students seek to “make meaning” of what they are learning (i.e., make sense of what they are learning in ways that resonate with them);
- Students’ understanding of what they are learning is shaped by direct experience with the topic;
- Students learn best when working on compelling problems;
- Students require both stimulation and reflection in their learning;
- Students learn best when they are involved in enjoyable interactions and have substantial personal support.
The active nature of what motivates learning and the needs of the student in the learning process are very important to understand, especially for the student who has IH. By being better informed about what motivates students to learn and what students’ needs are as learners, students who have IH are better prepared to navigate courses, the education services they seek, and the potential choices they have for learning (Ewell, 1997; Kuh, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2009; Kuh & O’Donnell, 2013; Mazur, 2014, 2016).
What Do We Know About Student Engagement?
The term student engagement is one that you will hear being used all over campus. It refers to the amount of time and effort students devote to their studies and other educationally purposeful activities linked to your desired learning outcomes in your courses, as determined by the college, i.e.,
- Students reaching the learning goals of the courses; and
- Instructors motivating students to be involved in their own learning.
Why is student engagement important to learning, and what are the implications of being engaged in learning for students who have IH?
We know that engaging students in the learning process increases the student’s attention and focus, motivates the student to practice higher-level critical thinking skills, and promotes meaningful learning experiences. In other words, learning is deepened when students are engaged.
For students who have IH, being engaged can be incredibly demanding because being wakeful and focused can be difficult to predict and maintain throughout the class. Being engaged in class is one of the most challenging hurdles faced by students who have IH.
Why are students challenged to learn in a classroom setting, especially those who have IH?
We know that all students are challenged on a number of levels to grasp the new materials presented in class. Learning requires motivated attention and working memory. For effective or deep learning to occur, students must draw upon their cognitive “resources,” which include perception, attention, memory, decision-making, and language comprehension. These resources play a critical role in daily living, as do the cognitive skills of thinking, problem-solving, planning, organizing and sustained attention. Examples of cognitive resources include intentionally paying attention and using working memory to retain information in class, find solutions to class problems, and then commit the solutions to memory when preparing for examinations (Cavanaugh, 2019; https://www.neuronup.com/en/areas/functions).
We also know that cognitive resources such as maintaining focused concentration and using working memory, especially short-term memory for retention, are limited for everyone (McLeod, 2009, Miller, 1956).
For students who have IH, these tasks are not only challenging but exhausting. Why?
Students who have IH may have significant baseline limitations in their cognitive resources due to their IH, even before they try to use those resources for schoolwork. So, when students who have IH are expected to maintain focus while retaining information in a class that could be 45 minutes to 3 hours in length, they can become cognitively exhausted (literally expressing “My brain is dead or tired” after leaving class). This may also be the primary reason why many students who have IH find reading lengthy course materials nearly impossible.
How is the instructor challenged when teaching students to learn?
In order for students to succeed in their courses, instructors must engage their students in ways that attract their interest and stir their enthusiasm—necessary first steps to learning. This requires creating challenges that are meaningful to the students, i.e., have relevance to their lives beyond getting a grade. To do that, the instructor must be able stimulate curiosity to get students interested, committed, and willing to devote effort to learning, mastering, and using these skills over time by being actively involved in the class (Cavanaugh, 2019).
A PEEK Behind the Instructor’s Door
The instructor’s challenge is to engage you so that course goals (outcomes) are met, and meeting those course outcomes is dependent upon students learning deeply. For that to happen, instructors must design their courses to, and use instructional methods that, engage you and your peers. Engaging students is so important that predictive analytics technology is used on many campuses to flag instructors—as well as the students and their academic advisors—when the students appear to be veering off course. Should that happen, the student could become disengaged from the course, prompting the need for intervention by advisors and instructors. The students’ grades and attendance (where required) are monitored to inform instructors and advisors which students may need help getting back on track. So…
What happens when students have no interest in the course and are enrolled because it is required for their degree, have no intention of learning, do not want to pay attention or retain information (let alone prepare for the class or for exams) and are exhausted from partying all night?
OR
What happens when students have IH and want to learn but struggle to pay attention and focus, wrestle with retaining information while they feel emotionally overwhelmed and cognitively exhausted halfway through the class, and may feel physically exhausted or cognitively unrefreshed or both after sleeping 13 hours the previous night?
The instructor is responsible for engaging all students in learning the course content, even the students in the two groups described above. One of the most effective tools an instructor has to make that happen for all students is emotion, because emotion has the power to attract interest, motivate behavior, and promote information recall. Instructors find creative ways to use emotion to stimulate curiosity, spark interest, and inspire commitment to learn and master the subject matter. Here are four ways emotion is used to engage all students in the course materials (Cavanaugh, 2019):
- “Hook in” the Class. Instructors emotionally engage their class to the subject, and they do that by, for example, using provocative questions, music that appeals to the students, and referencing current events of interest to the class. Engagement also happens when the subject has personal meaning for the students or when the students are involved in assignments that leave them feeling empowered by what they learn. In each of these instances, the techniques attract the students’ interest and motivate them because they tap into the emotional lives of the students. For that reason, the students are more likely to remember what they are studying. The power of personal meaning is evident in the tendency of many students who have IH to seek out courses with personal or professional relevancy so they can be engaged in their learning and thus increase their chances of success in the course.
- Inspire and Motivate. The work of the instructor is to inspire students to enjoy the subject as the instructor does. To do that, the instructor must motivate students so that they want to learn about that subject. Instructors may use their personalities and some social cues, such as eye contact, gestures, and varied vocal tones to convey being in the moment with the students and their enthusiasm about the subject.
- Create Community. When an instructor manages a course in a way that builds community in the class, students have a sense of belonging and feel like a valued member of that class. These are empowering feelings that can attract interest, motivate behavior, and affect the ability to recall information. The ways instructors do this include making a point of knowing the names of their students— even in a lecture hall class of two-hundred— and using the students’ names when the students speak; making sure all students get a chance to contribute to the discussions or the work going on; creating opportunities for group projects; and, using universal design or inclusive practices so their courses benefit all students, not just the majority of students.
- Tell Stories. One of the most powerful methods for recalling information is to use stories to present the material. A narrative weaves and chunks information together—lots of it and very small pieces of it—into a meaningful whole and links information together in important ways. In doing so, the narrative can affect understanding as well as recall, when causal relations and the narrative approaches are done effectively. Instructors use stories in many ways—to help students understand the subject and recall the “lessons learned” and important themes and details in the stories. Those stories may be from the field of the academic discipline, from students or the instructor or created by the members of class (think: immersion games).
Student TIPS!
The purpose of any instruction method or technique is to engage students in learning. Becoming familiar with these methods and techniques will better inform students which ones are “good fits” with their IH symptoms, learning styles, and preferences. Students can find information about the methods and techniques used in a course by reviewing the Course Description or Methods sections of the syllabus.
What do we know about technology and instruction methods?
Technologies can play an important role in the instruction methods described in this guidebook because of their potential to enhance learning by improving learning outcomes and enhancing the student experience. Specifically, students can learn from mistakes by reflecting on their experiences, sharpening skill sets, and developing confidence in their knowledge. When designed to increase student engagement, technologies can provide flexibility and connect physical and virtual learning spaces.
Whether to use technologies and which ones to use depend on several factors, including but not limited to:
- campus availability (technical infrastructure capacity; support to students, instructors, staff; funding; leadership strategies; compliance with privacy regulations)
- course/discipline compatibility (curriculum needs; active learning/assessment needs; purposeful)
- instructor preference (tech capability/confidence; resistance; perceived learning value)
- student convenience and input (choice; engaging, user friendly; accessibility compliance; access to devices/internet;).
Student TIPS!
Here is a sampling of the technologies being used on college campuses; some are discipline-specific (e.g., health care) and are included to demonstrate how the curriculum can affect technology choices.
Live note-taking app, online textbooks that provide real-time feedback on out-of-class assignments, robotics, 3D printers, interactive touch screen Anatomage tables; multi-media, AI, simulations; mobile/personal devices (laptops, tablets, smartphones), AI and adaptive Learning (generative AI tools, e.g., ChatGPT), adaptive software to customize learning, AI-powered teaching assistants; immersive technologies (virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) to create simulations; cloud-based collaborative tools (e.g., Zoom, Google Docs, and Canvas, video conferencing, content sharing); interactive AV Systems (high-definition screens, interactive whiteboards, document cameras, interactive touch screens and projectors, data-driven tools (analytics to monitor progress and data-driven AV design). And the list goes on! Check the course syllabus/description to find out which technologies are used in the course.
What matters to students when it comes to technology? Students who were asked about their technology priorities felt strongly about having (1) a high-quality user experience (reliable interfaces, integrations, and connectivity) and (2 ) a choice in the learning methods, which provides flexibility and autonomy to choose a technology that lets them learn best. For example, being able to choose how to engage in course activities—online or in person—makes a significant difference in student satisfaction levels.
So … Students expect a high-quality technology experience, and they want a choice in the technology they use to learn.
Student TIPS!
It is All About the Learning!
There are many course modalities – the ways in which the course is structured for learning to happen. Some classes meet in real-time, and some don’t; some meet on a physical campus, some don’t; and some blend aspects of the above options and others blend only a couple of them. Terms like synchronous and asynchronous, blended /hybrid and hyflex (hybrid-flexible) are used to describe how the course is designed for learning occur; other terms include e-learning, remote learning, virtual learning, distance learning, web-based learning, face-to-face in person learning, face-to-face e-learning, etc. It is all about the learning, and the instructor chooses the modality, instruction method, and technology.
You can learn more about the instructor’s choices in the course syllabus/syllabus.
Index & Glossary: Instructed Learning
In the INDEX below is a list of commonly used instruction methods for teaching on-campus classes or in campus centers that provide education services.
The terms “methods” and “approaches” will be used interchangeably to describe the ways instructors teach. Both terms refer to the primary way(s) by which the course is taught: sometimes that way is determined by the subject matter, sometimes by the instructor, and sometimes by the academic discipline or any combination of these. Within each of the methods described below are techniques used to engage students in learning. Instructors may use a combination of methods or a mix of approaches usually described in the course syllabus. If the methods are identified as “personalized” in nature, they are identified as such in the GLOSSARY entries. The terms “instructor” and “professor” will be used interchangeably through this guidebook.
Although not specifically noted in those entries, technology plays an important role in each instructional method by providing a range of educational resources when and where most beneficial and convenient for students — and often in the “palm of their hands.”
Student TIPS!
The goal of course instruction now vs. in the past—even as recently as 10 years ago—is learning. That might sound like a given—“course instructors teach so students learn”—but research has shown that courses instructed in what was the “traditional” lecture method did not ensure that learning actually took place. What did occur was the transfer of information—from the instructor, the textbook, and readings to the student. Instructors lecture while students will try to stay focused and listen, take notes, process what they are hearing, do the assigned readings, write papers, memorize all the course materials, and then take tests on those materials. That approach to instruction and learning has been proven ineffective. What didn’t occur was engaged learning, which results in deep learning that lasts over time (Cavanaugh, 2019; Kuh & O’Donnell, 2013; Mazur 2013, 2014, 2016).
Campuses are encouraging instructors to change their teaching methods so that engaged learning occurs. A few of the methods of instruction listed in this Glossary may not be taught in engaged ways—it depends on the instructor’s choice and the availability of classroom space making engaged learning techniques possible, especially for lecture hall classes. So, students who have IH need to be prepared for such realities.
Below are links within these Education Essentials Guides that may be helpful, whether the course is instructed for student engagement or as a lecture where students may not be engaged with peers or the instructor during the class.
Index: Instructed Learning
The entries in this INDEX are hyperlinked to descriptions of the selected methods of instruction that are found in the GLOSSARY.
Jump To:
- Active Learning
- Adaptive Learning
- Career-Relevant Instruction
- Competency-Based Instruction
- Discussion-Based Instruction
- Experiential Learning
- Flipped Classroom Instruction
- High-Impact Practices
- Inclusive Instruction
- Lectures in the 21st Century
- Interactive Instruction
- Personalized Learning
- Project-Based Instruction (PBI)
- Student-Centered Instruction
GLOSSARY: INSTRUCTED LEARNING
RESOURCES
Approved by the Hypersomnia Foundation Board of Directors
Legal Review: Independent Legal Counsel
Research Design and Methods Review: Dwight E. Giles, Jr., PhD
Editorial Review: Shelley Griewahn
Vetted and Reviewed by Amy Desmarais, MSA, Jessamine Griewahn-Okita, EdM, and Olivia Robbins, MSBA.
Jessamine Griewahn-Okita, EdM, Education Consultant, also Contributed to Content Development.
Olivia Robins, MSBA, Technical Consultant, also Developed Graphic Design.
Last Updated: 04.07.2026